Subject: Art & Culture

The transition from Rig Vedic (1500-1000 BCE) to Later Vedic period (1000-600 BCE) marked significant transformations in Indian society and economy. The period witnessed the gradual shift from pastoral-nomadic to settled agricultural life in the Indo-Gangetic plains.

Social Changes

• Varna System: The fluid social structure of Rig Vedic period transformed into a rigid four-fold varna system, dividing society into Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (laborers).

• Religious life: It became more ritualistic and complex, with the Brahmins gaining dominance through elaborate sacrifices and ceremonies.

• Status of Women: The relatively egalitarian position of women deteriorated with practices like child marriage, restrictions on widow remarriage, and exclusion from Vedic education becoming prevalent. Gargi and Maitreyi, though exceptions, represented the declining participation of women in intellectual discourse.

• Family Structure: The joint family system emerged with the Grihapati (head of household) wielding significant authority. The practice of Gotra exogamy became more rigid.

• Education System: The Gurukul system became more institutionalized with the emergence of centers like Taxila and Varanasi. The period saw the composition of later Vedic texts like Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.

Economic Transformations

• Agricultural Development: The use of iron tools (Krishna Ayas) led to agricultural expansion. Crops like rice, wheat, and barley were cultivated extensively in the Gangetic doab.

• Urbanization: The emergence of urban settlements like Hastinapur and Kaushambi marked the transition from rural to urban economies.

• Trade and Commerce: Internal trade expanded with the use of Nishka (gold coins) and Krishna (copper coins). The emergence of Vanik (trader) class indicated growing commercial activities.

• Occupational Diversification: New crafts and professions emerged, including pottery, carpentry, and metalwork. The Shrenis (guilds) began to organize economic activities.

• Land Ownership: Individual ownership of land replaced the tribal collective ownership. The concept of Bali (tax) emerged, indicating systematic revenue collection.

These changes collectively marked the transformation from a simple, egalitarian, pastoral society to a complex, hierarchical, and agrarian civilization during the Later Vedic period.