Before British rule, famines occurred in India but were localized and less frequent due to traditional systems of community grain storage, irrigation, and state relief. However, from the mid-18th century onwards, during the expansion of the British East India Company and later Crown rule, famines became more frequent, widespread, and devastating—causing millions of deaths.

Economic & Revenue Policies

1. Land Revenue Exploitation

   • Permanent Settlement (1793), Ryotwari & Mahalwari systems imposed high, fixed cash rents irrespective of harvest.
   • Forced peasants to sell crops even in scarcity, eroding subsistence farming.

2. Shift to Commercial Crops

   • Cultivation shifted from food grains to indigo, opium, cotton, and jute for export to Britain.
   • Reduced food availability for local consumption.

3. Drain of Wealth: Large-scale export of agricultural surplus to Britain without reinvestment in rural economy.

Administrative Apathy & Market Priorities

4. Neglect of Famine Relief

   • Pre-colonial states stored grain and remitted taxes in bad years; British prioritized revenue collection.
   • Example: During the Bengal Famine (1770), revenue collection continued despite crop failure.

5. Market-Driven Grain Movement: Development of railways and ports under colonial priorities led to grain exports from famine-hit regions to profit-making markets abroad.

6. Famine Codes & Delay in Implementation: Though famine codes existed, relief was inadequate and delayed, prioritizing “non-interference” in market prices.

Environmental & Structural Factors

7. Deforestation & Irrigation Neglect

   • Colonial emphasis on timber extraction reduced traditional water conservation.
   • Minimal investment in canals and tanks in famine-prone regions.

8. Failure to Address Climatic Variability: Poor monsoon combined with structural poverty left millions without buffer reserves.

Resulting Famine Episodes

• Great Bengal Famine (1770) – estimated 10 million deaths.
• Deccan Famine (1791–92) – ~11 million deaths.
• Orissa Famine (1866) – ~1 million deaths.
• Indian Famine (1899–1900) – ~1.25 million deaths.

The spurt in famines in colonial India was man-made to a large extent, rooted in exploitative economic policies, dismantling of traditional safety nets, prioritization of imperial profits over welfare, and administrative indifference. These famines were not simply natural disasters but a direct consequence of the colonial political economy.