The Mauryan Empire: UPSC Notes for India’s First Great Empire

The Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE) was India’s first great empire, bringing most of the subcontinent under one rule. It was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with the guidance of Chanakya (Kautilya), after overthrowing the Nanda dynasty in Magadha. The capital was established at Pataliputra (modern Patna).

The empire reached its peak under Ashoka the Great. After the Kalinga War, Ashoka turned from conquest to peace, embraced Buddhism, and spread the message of Dhamma (moral values) across Asia.

The Mauryan Empire is one of the most important topics in the Ancient History section of the UPSC Prelims and Mains syllabus.

The Maurya dynasty had several notable emperors who expanded and shaped the empire:

1. Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE):

• Defeated Seleucus Nicator, a Greek general of Alexander, and secured territories in present-day Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
• Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta, wrote the account Indica, describing the administration, society, and economy.
• Established a vast bureaucracy with ministers, governors, and spies as mentioned in Kautilya’s Arthashastra.

Chandragupta later abdicated and retired as a Jain ascetic. He died by ritual fasting (Sallekhana) at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka).

2. Bindusara – The Silent Conqueror

• Chandragupta’s son ruled from 297 to 273 BCE.
• Known as Amitrochates (likely from Sanskrit Amitraghata, “slayer of enemies”) by the Greeks.
• Expanded the empire southwards into the Deccan plateau.
• Maintained diplomatic relations with Hellenistic kingdoms.
• Supported the Ajivika sect.

3. Ashoka the Great

• Ashoka (273–232 BCE) is remembered as one of the greatest Mauryan rulers. Initially a conqueror, but the Kalinga War (261 BCE) changed his outlook.
• Deeply moved by destruction, he embraced Buddhism and non-violence.
• Promoted Dhamma (moral law) for peace and harmony. Main features of Dhamma:

1. Respect for elders
2. Kindness
3. Religious tolerance
4. Non-violence.

• Spread through rock edicts and pillar edicts, written in Prakrit, Greek, and Aramaic.
• Sent Buddhist missions abroad — his son, Mahinda, and daughter Sanghamitra, carried Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
• Built stupas (Sanchi, Bharhut), pillars (Sarnath Lion Capital), and rock-cut caves (Barabar Hills).

4. Last Mauryan Ruler: Brihadratha Maurya

• Reigned: 187–185 BCE.
• Known as the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty.
• His rule was weak → central power had already declined after Ashoka.
• Faced growing pressure from provincial governors and generals.
• In 185 BCE, he was assassinated by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga, during a military parade.
• This event ended the Mauryan Empire and led to the rise of the Shunga Dynasty.

Also read: Delhi Sultanate UPSC Notes: Dynasties, Rulers, Culture & Key Facts

The Mauryan Empire had a strong and highly organised system of administration, where the king held supreme power but worked through councils and officials.

• Centralised State: The king was the head of power, guided by a Council of Ministers. Officials reported directly to him.
• Provinces & Districts: The empire was divided into provinces, ruled by royal family members or trusted officers, and further into districts for local administration.
• Bureaucracy: A detailed system with many specialised officers (commerce, forests, horses, etc.), spies, and a regular census to manage resources.
• Justice System: The king ensured fair trials; Ashoka emphasised justice and set up courts for common people.
• Welfare Measures: The state stored grain, regulated prices, controlled trade, and cared for orphans, the poor, and travellers. Natural resources were treated as state property for public benefit.

The Mauryan Empire had a strong agrarian base, active trade, and a diverse society, with rulers promoting religious tolerance and welfare.

1. Agriculture:

• Most people were farmers; fertile Gangetic plains gave surplus crops.
• Land tax (bhaga) was about one-fourth of the produce.
• Revenue managed by the chief tax collector (samaharta) and treasurer (sannidhata).

2. Trade & Industry: 

• Guilds controlled crafts and trade.
• State monopolies in mining, salt, weapons, and coins.
• Standardised tolls, weights, and measures. Currency is used, but barter is common.

3. Society: 

• Organised into varnas and occupational groups.
• Brahmanas and monks are exempt from many taxes.
• Guilds (srenis) managed crafts and professions.

4. Women & Slavery: 

• Women had property rights, freedom in marriage, and some served in the royal court.
• Slavery existed, but was limited; Ashoka emphasised humane treatment of all.
• In his Major Rock Edict V, Ashoka mentioned that "Every Human is my child.”

5. Religion: 

• Religious tolerance was key.
• Chandragupta favoured Jainism, Bindusara the Ajivikas, and Ashoka embraced Buddhism, but respected all faiths.
• His Dhamma policy promoted harmony and moral values.

The Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE) began a new era of stone art, grand buildings, and religious diversity that influenced India’s culture.

• Stone Sculpture: Polished sandstone pillars with animal capitals (e.g., Sarnath Lion Capital).
• Pillars & Edicts: Ashokan pillars inscribed with moral edicts in Brahmi script.
• Stupas: Hemispherical brick-and-stone domes (e.g., Great Stupa at Sanchi).
• Rock-Cut Caves: Barabar Caves with mirror-polished interiors for Ajivika monks.
• Pataliputra Palace: Massive wooden halls and an 80-pillared assembly inspired by Persian design.
• Religious Patronage: Ashoka’s dhamma promoted non-violence, tolerance, and Buddhist missions abroad.
• Cultural Synthesis: Hellenistic and Persian influences blended with Indian artistry.

Our knowledge of the Mauryan Empire comes from indigenous texts, foreign accounts, and archaeological remains.

• Arthashastra (Kautilya): Sanskrit treatise on governance, economy, spies, and administration.
  Indica (Megasthenes): Greek envoy’s account of Mauryan society, Pataliputra’s grandeur, and Chandragupta’s army.
• Mudrarakshasa (Vishakhadatta): Play about Chandragupta’s rise and overthrow of the Nandas.
• Jain Texts (Kalpasutra & Parishishtaparvan): Describe Chandragupta’s conversion to Jainism and his end at Shravanabelagola.
• Buddhist Texts (Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Divyavadana, Ashokavadana): Mention Ashoka’s life, Dhamma policy, and the spread of Buddhism.
• Ashokan Inscriptions: Rock and pillar edicts in Prakrit, Greek, and Aramaic; direct record of Ashoka’s policies and thoughts.
• Archaeology: Remains of Pataliputra (wooden palaces, pillared halls), stupas (Sanchi, Bharhut), and pillars (Sarnath Lion Capital).
• Foreign Writers (Pliny, Arrian, Strabo, Diodorus): Preserve fragments of Megasthenes’ Indica and add details on Indian trade, geography, and Mauryan society.

Also read: Buddhism Notes for UPSC: Origins, Teachings & Historical Impact

After Ashoka’s death (232 BCE), the Mauryan Empire gradually weakened due to internal problems and external pressures, ending with the rise of the Shunga dynasty in 187 BCE.

• Weak Successors: Rapid turnover of ineffective rulers; the last king, Brihadratha killed by Pushyamitra Shunga.
• Economic Strain: Heavy taxation for the army and bureaucracy; debased coins suggest financial stress.
  Administrative Issues: Over-centralisation, no clear succession system, frequent instability.
• Ashoka’s Dhamma Policy: Emphasis on non-violence may have reduced military zeal under later kings.
• Brahmanical Reaction: Ashoka’s Buddhist leanings may have angered Brahmins; Pushyamitra Shunga reversed patronage.
• Regional Revolts & Invasions: Provinces sought independence; Indo-Greeks and Scythians attacked north-west; regional dynasties (Shungas, Satavahanas, Shakas) rose in power.

The Mauryan Empire was India’s first great experiment in political unity and centralised administration. This great kingdom left a lasting impact on Indian history. Its administrative system, art, and symbols (Lion Capital, Ashoka Chakra) continue to inspire modern India, making it one of the most important dynasties for the UPSC syllabus.

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