Sufi Movement in Medieval India UPSC Notes

The Sufi Movement is a crucial topic for both the UPSC Prelims and Mains Modern Indian History syllabus. Understanding its philosophy, orders, saints, and social contributions helps in answering questions in both stages of the exam.

In this blog, we will cover the Sufi Movement in India, highlighting its relation with the Bhakti Movement for UPSC.

Sufism is a mystical form of Islam that emphasises personal devotion, love for God, and service to humanity. The term 'Sufi' comes from the Arabic word 'suf', meaning ‘wool’, referring to the simple woollen cloaks worn by early Muslim ascetics.

• Sufism arrived in India during the 10th-11th century and became popular by the 12th century​.
• The earliest Sufi saint to settle in India was Al-Hujwiri (died 1073 AD), known as Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Infinite Treasures)​. He wrote Kashf-ul-Mahjub, a famous Persian treatise on Sufism.
• Sufism was organised into 12 spiritual lineages, called Silsilahs (orders), by the 12th century. However, the four major Silsilahs that became prominent in India were: Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri, and Naqshbandi.
• The central doctrine of Sufism believes that "God is one," "everything is in God," "one can find God through loving devotion".

Also read: Revolt of 1857 UPSC: Why It Happened, How it Spread, What It Left Behind

The journey of Sufism in India spans several centuries, with each phase bringing new influences and adaptations to the Indian environment.

• Early Arrival (11th Century): Sufism began to arrive in India during the 11th century, with Al-Hujwiri settling in Lahore.
• Establishment Phase (12th Century): The 12th century saw the arrival of Sufi saints from Central Asia and Persia, who came as missionaries, traders, soldiers, and Islamic rulers.
• Delhi Sultanate Period: After the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, various Sufi orders were introduced in India, making it a new home for Sufis fleeing from Central Asia and Persia​.
• Major Expansion (13th-14th Centuries): From the 13th to 14th centuries, Sufis spread their teachings across India from Multan to Bengal​.

Three Stages of Development of Sufism in India:

Stage 1 (10th Century): Called the age of Golden Mysticism or Khanqah stage​.

Stage 2 (11th-14th Century): Tariqa stage, when Sufism was institutionalised with traditions and symbols​.

Stage 3 (15th Century onwards): The Tarifa stage, when Sufism became a popular movement​.

Sufism adopted many indigenous Indian concepts, such as yogic postures, music, and dance, attracting followers from both Muslims and Hindus.

Also read: List of Important Battles in Indian History for the UPSC Examination

The Sufi movement had several distinctive characteristics that made it different from orthodox Islamic practices. These include:

• Organisation into Silsilahs: Sufis were organised into different orders called Silsilahs (spiritual chains), each led by a prominent Sufi saint or Pir​.
• Role of the Pir: Sufis believed that for union with God, one needs a spiritual guide or Pir (teacher)​.
• Khanqah System: Sufi Pirs lived in Khanqahs (hospices) with their disciples, which became centres of Sufi activities and learning​.
• Different from Madrasas: Khanqahs emerged as important centres of learning, distinct from madrasas (centres of theology)​.
• Musical Practices: Many Sufis enjoyed Sama (musical congregation) in their Khanqahs, which led to the development of Qawwali, a devotional music form​.
• Ziyarat Tradition: Pilgrimage to the tombs of Sufi saints (Ziyarat) became an important ritual practice​.
• Belief in Miracles: Most Sufis believed in performing miracles, and almost all Pirs were associated with miraculous deeds​.
• Diverse Political Approaches: Different Sufi orders had different attitudes toward politics and state power.

Also read: Delhi Sultanate UPSC Notes: Dynasties, Rulers, Culture & Key Facts

Sufi philosophy centres on achieving closeness to God through love, devotion, and inner purification rather than external rituals.

• Personal Devotion to God: Sufis emphasise cultivating a personal and intimate connection with God through devotion, love, and surrender to the divine​.
• Fana (Self-Annihilation): The concept of dissolving one's ego and worldly desires in God's presence to achieve complete selflessness​.
• Baqa (Eternal Existence in God): After attaining Fana, the Sufi moves towards Baqa, existing harmoniously with the divine​.
• Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being): The doctrine promoted by Ibn-i-Arabi that all beings are fundamentally one, emphasising the oneness of existence​.
• Love of Humanity: According to Sufism, love of God means love of humanity, and service to God is service to humanity​.
• Belief in Equality: Sufism transcends all religious and communal distinctions, treating all human beings as equal​.
• Inner Purity over External Conduct: Unlike orthodox Muslim sects that emphasise external conduct, Sufism emphasises inner purity.

By the 12th century, Sufis in India were organised into various orders or Silsilahs, each with its own practices and teachings.

1. Chishti Order

• The Founder was Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (1143-1235), also known as Gharib Nawaz (Helper of the Poor)​.
• He arrived in India during the reign of Prithviraj Chauhan and settled in Ajmer around 1192 after Muhammad Ghori's victory at the Battle of Tarain.
• Most influential Silsila in India; Emperor Akbar was devoted to Salim Chishti​.

Key Principles:

• Emphasised the doctrine of unity of being with God (Wahdat-al-Wujud)​.
• Rejected all material goods as distractions​.
• Practised recitation of names of God (Dhikr)​.
• Promoted love, tolerance, and openness​.

Famous Saints: Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (Delhi), Baba Farid (Punjab), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi), Hamiduddin Nagori, Gesudaraz/Bandanawaz (Gulbarga)​.

2. Suhrawardi Order

• The founder was Shihabuddin Suhrawardi in Baghdad.
• He was brought to India by Bahauddin Zakariya, who established the Suhrawardi silsila in Multan​.
• The Suhrawardi spread across Punjab, Sindh, Kashmir, and Bengal.

Key Principles:

• Unlike Chishtis, Suhrawardis accepted grants from rulers and lived in luxury​.
• Actively participated in politics​.
• Zakariya received the title "Sheikh-ul-Islam" from Sultan Iltutmish​.

3. Qadiri Order

• The founder was Sheikh Abdul Qadir Gilani (1077-1166) in Baghdad, Iraq​.
• The Qadiri order had a significant global presence in South Asia, North Africa, and Central Asia​

Key Principles:

• Emphasised strict adherence to Sunni Islamic law.
• Believed in the purification of the self, promoting humility, piety, and moderation​.
• Members engage in Dhikr (remembrance of God); the rose is a symbol of the order​. 

Famous Saint: Miyan Mir

4. Naqshbandi Order

• They came from the Silsilah Khwajagan in Turkestan, made famous by Baha-ud-Din Naqshband​.
• They were introduced in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah; revitalised by Ahmad Sirhindi (Mujaddid Alf-i-Thani)​.
• The Naqshbandi influenced Mughal ruler Aurangzeb, who embraced Sirhindi's orthodox teachings​.

Key Principles:

• More orthodox and opposed to syncretic practices​.
• Advocated return to Islamic traditions and strict adherence to Sharia​.
• Ahmad Sirhindi opposed Akbar's liberal religious policies and Din-i-Ilahi​.

Famous Saints: Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, Mirza Mazhar Jan-i-Jahan

5. Shattari Order

• The founder was Sheikh Sirajuddin Abdullah Shattar (died 1406 CE)​.
• The Shattari silsilah originated in Persia.
• Sheikh Abdullah Shattar brought it to India in the 15th century​.
• It belongs to the lineage of Tayfuri Khanwada, passing through Bayazid Bastami.

Key Principles:

• Affirm selfhood, not deny it; followers said, "I am I.
• Combined yogic practices with Islamic mysticism.
• No need to fight against the ego like other orders.
• Refused Fana (mystical annihilation) as dualism

Famous Saints: Sheikh Muhammad Ghawth, Shah Wajihuddin Alvi

India has been blessed with numerous Sufi saints whose teachings and lives continue to inspire millions even today. Here are some of the important ones:

1. Al-Hujwiri (Data Ganj Baksh)

The earliest Sufi saint to settle in India, Al-Hujwiri, marked the beginning of organised Sufism in the subcontinent.

• Period: Died in 1073 AD
• Region: Lahore
• Significance: Compiled Kashf-ul-Mahjub, a seminal Persian treatise on Sufism that established scholarly credibility for the movement.
• Legacy: Symbolised the beginning of organised Sufism in South Asia.

Contributions:

• Laid foundational concepts for Sufi thought in the Indian subcontinent.
• His burial site became an important pilgrimage centre.

2. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Gharib Nawaz)

Known as the "Friend of the Poor," Moinuddin Chishti established the Chishti Order, the most widespread Sufi movement in India.

• Period: 1143-1235 AD
• Region: Ajmer, Rajasthan
• Significance: Founded the Chishti Order, the most influential Sufi movement in the subcontinent.
• Legacy: His dargah in Ajmer remains one of the most visited pilgrimage sites in India, attracting devotees from all faiths.

Contributions:

• Spread the message of universal brotherhood and tolerance toward non-Muslims.
• Engaged with diverse communities, influencing both Hindu and Muslim followers.
• Received patronage from Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq and Ghiyasuddin Khalji.

3. Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki

The most important disciple of Moinuddin Chishti, Kaki, popularised the Chishti order in Delhi and northern India.

• Period: Died in 1235 AD
• Region: Delhi
• Significance: Extended the Chishti order's influence from Ajmer to the capital, making it a major religious centre.
• Legacy: His shrine became a significant spiritual centre in medieval Delhi.

Contributions:

• Became a central figure in Delhi's religious and cultural life.
• Popularised Chishti teachings across northern India.
• The famous Qutub Minar is believed to be named after him (though the claim is historically debated).

4. Baba Farid (Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar)

Punjab's first great Sufi poet, Baba Farid, developed distinctive mystical verses that transcended religious boundaries.

• Period: 1188-1266 AD
• Region: Punjab; established Khanqah at Ajodan (now Pakpattan, Pakistan)
• Significance: First great Sufi poet of Punjab whose teachings crossed religious communities.
• Legacy: His khanqah became a centre of learning where disciples absorbed teachings on divine love and renunciation

Contributions:

• Disciple of Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
• Opposed ties with wealthy rulers and state power.
• Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.

5. Nizamuddin Auliya (Mahbub-e-Ilahi)

One of India's most celebrated Sufi saints, Nizamuddin Auliya, emphasised love as the primary means of realising God.

• Period: Died in 1325 AD
• Region: Delhi
• Significance: One of the most famous Sufi saints whose teachings made Sufism accessible to ordinary people.
• Legacy: His dargah in Delhi is a thriving pilgrimage centre where the Thursday night Qawwali tradition continues to draw thousands of devotees.

Contributions:

• Stressed love and emotional devotion as paths to divine union
• Promoted religious pluralism and kindness across communities
• Rejected rulers and never accepted gifts from kings, maintaining spiritual independence
• Mentored Amir Khusrau, who became the father of Qawwali music

6. Amir Khusrau

An Indo-Persian Sufi mystic and disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya, Amir Khusrau represents the synthesis of Indian and Persian cultures.

• Period: 1253-1325
• Region: Delhi
• Significance: Father of Qawwali music and a prolific Indo-Persian scholar and poet.
• Legacy: Democratized access to transcendent spiritual experience through music and artistic expression.

Contributions:

• Founded Qawwali as a devotional art form, transforming Sufi mystical experiences into accessible performances.
• Called "Tuti-i-Hind" (Parrot of India) for his mastery of language and metaphor.
• Authored by Khaliq-e-bari, one of the oldest printed dictionaries in the world.
• Composed prolifically in Persian, Arabic, and Hindi.

7. Gesudaraz (Bandanawaz)

Gesudaraz extended the Chishti order southward, establishing Sufism's roots in the Deccan region.

• Period: 1321-1422 AD
• Region: Punjab; later settled in Gulbarga (Deccan)
• Significance: Extended the Chishti Order to South India, bringing Sufi philosophy to new regions.
• Legacy: Transformed Gulbarga into an important Sufi centre, adapting Chishti philosophy to regional contexts.

Contributions:

• Disciple of Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlavi.
• Fled Delhi around 1398 during Timur's invasion and settled in Gulbarga at the invitation of the Bahamani Sultan Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah.
• Authored Tafseer Multaqat in Arabic.

8. Salim Chishti

A later-generation Chishti saint, Salim Chishti, represented the order's spiritual legacy while engaging with Mughal imperial power.

• Period: 1478-1572 AD
• Region: Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh
• Significance: Descendant of Baba Farid, who influenced the Mughal empire's cultural development.
• Legacy: His tomb (built 1580-1581) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site; childless women continue to pray there seeking blessings.

Contributions:

• Foretold the birth of Akbar's son.
• Emperor Akbar named his son Salim (later Emperor Jahangir) in his honour.
• Akbar built the entire city of Fatehpur Sikri around his dwelling.

9. Bahauddin Zakariya

Bahauddin Zakariya founded the Suhrawardi order, establishing an alternative Sufi tradition in medieval South Asia.

• Period: c.1170-1262 AD
• Region: Multan (settled in 1222)
• Significance: Founded the Suhrawardi order, establishing an alternative to the dominant Chishti tradition.
• Legacy: His teachings spread extensively throughout southern Punjab and Sindh, creating a distinct approach to Sufi spirituality.

Contributions:

• Settled in Multan in 1222, transforming it into "Baghdad of the East".
• Received the title "Sheikh-ul-Islam" from Sultan Iltutmish.
• Established networks of disciples and khanqahs across the region.

10. Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Mujaddid Alf-i-Thani)

A reformist Sufi saint, Sirhindi, represented a counter-movement to pluralistic Sufism, advocating for Islamic orthodoxy.

• Period: 1564-1624 AD
• Region: Delhi (imprisoned in Gwalior Fort)
• Significance: Called "Renewer of the Second Millennium"; represented orthodox reform movement within Sufism.
• Legacy: His ideas deeply influenced Emperor Aurangzeb's religious policies, shaping the final Mughal era's approach to Islamic orthodoxy.

Contributions:

• Opposed Akbar's Din-i-Ilahi and liberal religious policies..
• Advocated for orthodox Islam and the reimposition of jizya (tax on non-Muslims).
• Imprisoned by Emperor Jahangir in Gwalior Fort in 1619 for one year.
• Authored Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani (collection of letters), a landmark text in Muslim religious thought.

Also read: Jainism UPSC Notes: Doctrines, Sects, Teachings, and Contributions

Sufism made profound contributions to Indian society, bridging communities and promoting harmony across religious lines. Let’s understand the contributions in detail.

1. Religious Contributions:

• Promoted Religious Tolerance: Sufism helped reduce Hindu-Muslim conflicts and fostered brotherhood between communities​.
• Concept of Unity: Preached the essential oneness of different religions through the Wahdat-ul-Wujud doctrine.
• Simplified Religion: Rejected empty rituals and priestly power, offering simple alternatives like communal singing and chanting.
• Vernacular Expression: Used local languages for spiritual teachings, breaking the monopoly of Arabic and Persian.

2. Social Contributions:

• Bridged Communities: Sufi Khanqahs served as communal spaces where people of all backgrounds gathered for prayer, dialogue, and service.
• Service to the Needy: Sufis like Nizamuddin Auliya were renowned for distributing gifts to needy people regardless of religion or caste​.
• Cultural Synthesis: Led to Hindu-Muslim cultural exchange, including translation of works between traditions​.
• Music and Arts: Qawwali and Sama music became important cultural contributions.

Both the Bhakti and Sufi movements emerged during medieval India and shared many similarities while maintaining their distinct religious identities.

The Sufi movement in India stands as one of the most remarkable spiritual and social phenomena in Indian history. By bringing a message of divine love, inner purity, and universal brotherhood, Sufism created bridges between communities and helped shape India's composite culture.

In modern times, when the world faces challenges of intolerance and division, the Sufi message of "Sulh-e-Kul" (peace with all) remains as relevant as ever. 

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