India-China Relations UPSC Notes: History, Wars, and Border Disputes

In 1954, when Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai signed the Panchsheel Agreement, a new chapter of friendship began between India and China. The slogan “Hindi-Chini Bhai Bhai” captured the spirit of mutual trust and Asian solidarity.

Yet, this warmth soon faded. The 1962 war marked a turning point, shattering the brotherhood and reshaping India’s foreign policy forever. Since then, India-China relations have remained a complex mix of cooperation and competition. 

For UPSC aspirants, understanding these dynamics is vital for GS Paper 2 (International Relations) and for mastering current affairs.

India and China are the world's two most populous nations, accounting for over one-third of the global population. Their bilateral relationship shapes Asian geopolitics and profoundly influences regional and international stability.

• Diplomatic relations were established on 1 April 1950, with India being the first non-socialist country to establish formal ties with the newly formed People's Republic of China.
• China is India's second-largest trading partner (after the US).
• The two countries share a 3,488-km border(4057 KM- India's International Border (IB) claim with China), with India's assessment of the Line of Actual Control aligning with this length, while China estimates it to be around 2,000 km.
• Both are nuclear-armed nations, of which India possesses approximately 180 warheads, while China has approximately 600 warheads (as of 2025).
• In 2005, India and China agreed on a “Strategic and Cooperative Partnership for Peace and Prosperity”. Since then, leaders have met repeatedly to redefine ties as a “Closer Developmental Partnership”.

Also read: UPSC Notes on First World War: Causes, Consequences & Key Treaties

India and China share one of Asia's oldest civilisations with rich cultural and trade links dating back over 2,000 years. However, their modern relationship has been marked by both cooperation and conflict.

1.  Ancient and Medieval Period (2nd Century BC to 18th Century AD)

• Silk Road Connection: Trade began during the 2nd century BC following Zhang Qian's expedition to Central Asia​.
• Buddhist Transmission: Buddhism spread from India to China during the 1st century AD, becoming the spiritual backbone of contact​.
• Travellers and Scholars: Several Chinese monks, such as Fa Xian (399-414 AD) and Xuan Zang (7th century AD), visited India.

2. Colonial Period and Independence Struggle (1890s-1947)

• Kang Youwei's Stay in India (1890s): A Chinese scholar sought refuge in India amid political turmoil.
• Tagore's Visit to China (1924): Renowned poet Rabindranath Tagore visited, reviving spiritual and intellectual connections​.
• Cheena Bhawan (1937): Established at Viswabharati University under Tagore's guidance to promote cultural exchange.
• Xu Beihong's Visit (1939-40): A Chinese artist visited Shantiniketan to promote cultural dialogue.

3. Post-Independence Era (1947-1962): The "Panchsheel" Phase

• Co-operation: Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai visited India in 1954, and Indian PM Jawaharlal Nehru visited China in October 1954.
• Panchsheel Agreement (1954): Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence signed, non-interference in internal affairs, mutual respect, peaceful coexistence, and economic cooperation.
• Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai: India and China are brothers slogan symbolised the warmth of early relations between the two nations.​
• Emergence of Disputes: Tensions emerged after China occupied Tibet in 1950, and the 1959 Tibetan uprising occurred. India granted asylum to the Dalai Lama, significantly straining China's relations.

4. Sino-Indian War of 1962

• Border Disputes: Issues over Aksai Chin (western sector) and Arunachal Pradesh (eastern sector), inherited from unclear British colonial boundary agreements​.
• McMahon Line Dispute: India recognised the McMahon Line as the boundary; China rejected it and claimed vast territories, including Arunachal Pradesh.
• Outcome: Chinese forces won decisively, pushing Indian forces back in both sectors and capturing all claimed territories. China declared a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew to pre-war positions, creating the de facto Line of Actual Control (LAC).

5. Cold War Period (1962-1988):

• Fluctuating Relations: After the 1962 war, diplomatic relations remained strained for more than a decade.​ In 1976, India and China resumed ambassador exchanges, signalling a gradual thaw in relations.
• Nathu La Clashes (1967): The Chinese PLA attacked Indian posts in Sikkim; India tactically defeated Chinese forces and destroyed PLA fortifications.

6. Period of Normalisation (1980-2020)

• Trade Agreement (1984): Most Favoured Nation (MFN) trade agreement signed, marking economic reopening.
• Rajiv Gandhi's Visit (1988): First Indian PM to visit China after the 1962 war; symbolised intention to heal past wounds.
• Co-operation: In 2003, Indian PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee visited China, and both sides signed the Declaration on Principles of China-India Relations.

7. Border Crises (2017-2020):

• The Doklam Standoff (2017): China began building a road in the Doklam plateau, claimed by both China and Bhutan​. India deployed troops on June 18, 2017, to support ally Bhutan under Operation Juniper.
• The Galwan Valley Clash (June 15, 2020): It was the first fatal clash since 1975. It violated the 1996 agreement prohibiting firearms in border areas; troops used stones, batons, and makeshift weapons. As a response, India banned Chinese apps (TikTok, WeChat), restricted Chinese investment, and halted direct flights.
• The Yangtse Clash (2022): It was Hand-to-hand combat between 300 Chinese troops and Indian forces in Arunachal Pradesh near Chumi Gyatse Falls​.

Also read: Missiles of India Notes for UPSC: Types, Features, Defence Capabilities & Significance

The India-China border dispute is a long-standing and complex issue spanning 3,488 km(4057 KM- India's International Border (IB) claim with China) and lacking an agreed boundary. Rooted in colonial-era maps, it has led to wars, standoffs, and frequent clashes.

1. Western Sector: Aksai Chin

The western sector contains the most significant territorial dispute centred on Aksai Chin, a high-altitude plateau in Ladakh.

• In the 1890s, Britain and China signed the Anglo-Chinese Convention, proposing the Johnson Line placing Aksai Chin within the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir (part of India).
• China does not recognise the Johnson Line and bases its claim on the McDonald Line (1890s), which places Aksai Chin under Chinese control.
• China administers Aksai Chin as part of its Xinjiang Autonomous Region, and India considers Aksai Chin part of its Union Territory of Ladakh.​
• The region holds strategic importance near the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and serves as a crucial military supply route for China.

2. Eastern Sector: Arunachal Pradesh

The eastern sector dispute centres on the McMahon Line, drawn during the 1914 Simla Convention.

• The McMahon Line was demarcated in 1914 during the Simla Convention between China, British India, and Tibetan representatives.
• The line places most of Arunachal Pradesh under Indian control, following the watershed principle.
• China claims the entire state of Arunachal Pradesh as "South Tibet", considering it part of the Tibet Autonomous Region.
• India administers Arunachal Pradesh as a full-fledged state with established government institutions and civil administration.

3. The Line of Actual Control (LAC)

• The term was introduced by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959 as "the line up to which each side exercises actual control".
• The LAC came into practical existence after the 1962 Sino-Indian War as a demarcation between territories controlled by each side.
• The LAC is divided into three sectors:

1. The eastern sector, which encompasses Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
2. The middle sector, which spans Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
3. The western sector, which includes Ladakh.

• There is no mutually agreed-upon map depicting the exact LAC, particularly in the eastern and western sectors.

Also read: Article 370 of the Indian Constitution: 6 Years After Abrogation

India and China have established multiple frameworks for diplomatic engagement and conflict management.

• Strategic & Defence Dialogue: High-level meetings & military-to-military interactions between foreign ministers & defence ministers' meetings.
• Economic and Trade Dialogue: Regular discussions on commercial issues, investments, and trade imbalances.
• Cultural and People-to-People Exchanges: Programs promoting tourism, educational exchanges, and cultural understanding.
• Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC): Established in 2012; has conducted 31 rounds of talks as of 2024.
• Indian PM Visit to China: PM Modi met President Xi Jinping at the SCO Summit in Tianjin, Modi's first visit in 7 years, emphasising partnership over rivalry.
• Strategic Autonomy vs. Alignment: India balances engagement with China through multilateral forums like BRICS and SCO while participating in Quad and G20.

India and China engage in multilateral cooperation through various international forums, including BRICS, SCO, G20, AIIB, and climate negotiations, despite bilateral border tensions.

1. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO): India is a full member of the SCO, an organisation founded by China and Russia in 2001.

• India joined the SCO as a full member in 2015 alongside Pakistan.
• India uses the SCO platform to pursue regional connectivity, counter-terrorism cooperation, and cultural exchanges.​
• India serves as a balancing force within the SCO, preventing it from becoming purely China-dominated.

2. BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa): BRICS represents cooperation among major developing economies and emerging powers.

• India participates in amplifying the voice of the Global South in international affairs.​
• India works with BRICS members on reformed global governance, development cooperation, and counter-terrorism.

3. Russia-India-China (RIC): 

• The RIC trilateral forum was suspended after the 2020 Galwan clash due to India-China tensions.​
• Russia has been pushing for its revival to create a channel for India-China engagement.

4. Other Multilateral Platforms: 

• India and China engage in regional forums like the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation on specific issues.
• Both participate in global forums, including the UN, where they sometimes coordinate on Global South issues.​
• India balances engagement with China through participation in the Quad, Indo-Pacific frameworks, and other Western-led initiatives.

China remains one of India's most significant trading partners, though characterised by a large trade imbalance favouring China.

1. Key Export Items

• From China to India: Electronics, machinery, rare earths, chemicals, textiles, minerals, iron and steel, vehicles.​
• From India to China: Mineral ores, cotton, chemicals, pharmaceutical products, spices, and animal products.

2. Investment Flows

• Chinese FDI in India: Multiple Chinese companies operate across sectors, including electronics, renewable energy, telecommunications, and infrastructure.
• Indian Investment in China: Indian pharmaceutical and manufacturing companies established operations to serve the Chinese market.

3. Critical Supplies Agreement (2025): China agreed to ease export curbs on critical goods for India, including rare earth elements, fertilisers, and tunnel-boring machines.

4. Manufacturing Opportunities: India is attracting electronics manufacturing from China, particularly in the EV sector. Apple moved some iPhone production from China to India, now producing approximately 20% of global iPhones in Indian facilities.

Also read: Hypersonic Missiles

The year 2025 marks a significant turning point in India-China relations, nearly five years after the 2020 Galwan Valley clash marked a deterioration. Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi visited New Delhi in August 2025.​ Both sides agreed to

• Resume direct passenger flights,
• Reopen border trade routes,
• Encourage mutual investment flows, and
• Establish three new border-related mechanisms for better communication and crisis management.

Soon, Prime Minister Narendra Modi attended the 25th Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summit in Tianjin. Moreover, the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra in Tibet resumed in 2025, symbolising a gradual revival of traditional and cultural links.

India-China relations are cautiously improving in 2025, marked by efforts to ease tensions and boost cooperation. However, deep-seated challenges continue to influence their complex and evolving relationship.

• The Line of Actual Control (LAC) remains undefined, with competing claims over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh.
• China’s Five-Finger policy expands its influence from Tibet into Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Arunachal Pradesh through infrastructure and military buildup.
• Water security is threatened by China’s Yarlung Tsangpo dam on the Brahmaputra, affecting downstream water flow to India and Bangladesh.
• China’s String of Pearls strategy establishes ports and military bases in Gwadar (Pakistan), Hambantota (Sri Lanka), and Djibouti, expanding its regional reach.
• The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) runs through Gilgit-Baltistan (claimed by India), violating Indian sovereignty.
• Trade imbalance heavily favours China, with India facing a large trade deficit.

India and China are moving towards stable economic cooperation, seeking to reduce risks and boost mutual growth.

• Promote balanced trade by increasing Indian exports to China and scaling up domestic manufacturing.​
• Diversify supply chains and invest in technology partnerships, especially in renewable energy and electronics.​
• Strengthen border management talks to maintain peace while expanding direct connectivity and people-to-people exchanges.

Elevate Your UPSC Prep with SuperKalam!

Discover SuperKalam, your Super Mentor for targeted UPSC preparation. Unlock unlimited MCQs, practice Mains answers with Instant Evaluation, and real-time performance tracking. 

Explore SuperKalam's resources and set yourself on the path to success!