Bhakti Movement in India Notes for UPSC

The Bhakti Movement (7th–17th centuries) promoted devotion to a personal god over rituals and caste. Originating in South India with Alvars and Nayanars, it spread north through saints like Kabir, Mirabai, and Guru Nanak.

Let’s understand the background, origin, features, founders/saints, and social impact of the Bhakti movement for the UPSC syllabus.

The Bhakti movement was a spiritual movement in medieval India that emphasised personal devotion to God instead of complicated rituals and priestly control. The word “Bhakti” comes from the Sanskrit root “bhaj”, which means to worship, to adore or to share in.

• Started in South India (7th-9th centuries) and spread to North India (13th-17th centuries).
• Used local languages (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, and Hindi) instead of Sanskrit.
• Challenged the caste system, untouchability, and gender discrimination, providing spiritual and social equality to all people regardless of their social status.
• Produced beautiful devotional poetry and songs.
• Direct connection with God without priests is needed.

Also read: Revolt of 1857 UPSC: Why It Happened, How it Spread, What It Left Behind

The Bhakti movement began in South India during the early medieval period. It arose as a response to the rigid rituals of Brahmanical religion, offering common people a simpler, more personal way to express their faith through devotion to God.

1. South Indian Beginning:

• Started with Alvars (12 Vaishnu saints) and Nayanars (63 Shiva saints) in Tamil Nadu.
• These saints came from low castes and "untouchable" communities(like the Pulaiyars and Panars), which was revolutionary.
• They sang devotional songs in the Tamil language in villages.
• Their hymns were collected into sacred texts: Nalayira Divya Prabandham(Alvars) and Tirumurai(Nayanars).

2. Spread to North India:

• Ramanuja and Madhva brought Bhakti philosophy to North India.
• Ramananda made it a popular movement in North India.
• Kabir and Guru Nanak spread it further using simple language.
• Each region developed its own version of Bhakti.

Also read: Moral Thinkers and Great Philosophers from India and the World: UPSC Mains

The Bhakti movement had distinctive characteristics that set it apart from orthodox religious traditions and made it revolutionary for its time.

1. Emphasis on Personal Devotion: Direct emotional connection with God without need for priests or intermediaries.

• Devotion became the primary path to salvation rather than rituals or knowledge alone.
• Saints encouraged followers to develop a loving, personal relationship with the divine.

2. Worship of Shiva and Vishnu: The movement focused on two major Hindu deities

• Alvars predominantly worshipped Vishnu and his avatars like Krishna and Rama.
• Nayanars primarily devoted themselves to the worship of Shiva.

3. Use of Local and Vernacular Languages: Revolutionary shift from Sanskrit to common languages.

• Bhakti saints composed in regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Gurmukhi.
• Popular poetry, songs, and hymns became the medium of spiritual teaching.

4. Nomadic and Travelling Saints: Many Bhakti saints moved from place to place.

• They travelled village to village singing hymns and spreading their messages.
• Direct contact with diverse communities helped the movement reach remote areas.

5. Challenge to the Caste System: Revolutionary social message of equality

• Saints preached that devotion to God was the only requirement, not caste or birth.
• Lower castes and "untouchables" were welcomed as equal participants.
• Women were encouraged to participate in religious activities and become spiritual leaders.

Also read: Jainism UPSC Notes: Doctrines, Sects, Teachings, and Contributions

The Bhakti movement had no single founder. It grew through the teachings of many saints and philosophers, who shared the common message of love and devotion to God.

1. Shankaracharya (Born in the 8th Century): Pioneer philosopher who laid the intellectual foundations.

• Born in Kaladi, Kerala, he was a child prodigy who renounced worldly life at age 9.
• Propounded the Advaita Vedanta philosophy, emphasising the oneness of the individual soul with the ultimate reality.
• Believed in Nirguna Brahman (God without attributes or form).
• Stressed that knowledge (Gyan) alone leads to salvation and liberation.
• Established four major mathas (monastic centres) at Dwarka, Puri, Sringeri, and Badrinath.
• His famous work "Brahma Satyam Jagat Mithya" means "Brahman alone is real, the world is illusion".
• Though not a Bhakti saint himself, his philosophy influenced later developments in Bhakti.

2. Ramanuja (Born in the 11th Century): Founder of qualified non-dualism and Vaishnavism.

• Born in Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai.
• Advocated Vishista Advaita (qualified monism) philosophy.
• Believed God possessed divine qualities and was a personal, all-powerful divine being.
• Opposed Shankaracharya's strict monism and offered theistic interpretation of Vedanta.
• His works include Sribhashya, Vedanta Dipa, Gita Bhasya, and Vedantasara.
• His philosophy emphasised that individual souls exist eternally as part of God.
• Provided a philosophical foundation for emotional devotion to a personal God.

3. Madhvacharya (1238-1317 CE): Founder of dualist philosophy.

• Born in the Kannada-speaking region of Karnataka.
• Established the Dvaita (dualism) philosophy with a clear distinction between God and the soul.
• Believed God (Brahman), soul (Jivatma), and matter are three distinct and independent entities.
• Taught that everyone should worship and pray to God through devotion.
• Founded the Brahma Sampradaya (spiritual lineage).
• His philosophy strongly supported the Vaishnava Bhakti movement.
• Emphasised that everyone, regardless of caste, should engage in devotion to Vishnu.

4. Nimbarka (contemporary of Ramanuja): Founder of the duality-non-duality school.

• Pronounced Bheda Abheda and Dvaita Advaita (difference and non-difference) philosophy.
• Founded the Sanak Sampradaya (spiritual tradition).
• Developed the middle path between Advaita and Dvaita philosophies.
• Promoted Vaishnava Bhakti with emphasis on Krishna worship.

5. Vallabhacharyya (1479-1531 CE): Founder of the pure non-dualism path.

• Established Pushtimarg (the path of grace) spiritual practice.
• Founded the Rudra Sampradaya (spiritual lineage).
• Taught Shudh Advaita (pure non-dualism) philosophy.
• Believed in surrendering to God's divine grace for spiritual salvation.
• Created a systematic philosophy supporting emotional devotion to a personal God.

6. Kabir Das (1440-1518 CE): Greatest mystic poet and radical reformer

• Born into a Muslim weaver family, but attracted to Hindu spirituality.
• Bridged Hindu and Muslim traditions through teachings.
• Preached devotion to Nirguna Brahman (formless God).
• Used dohas (couplets) and vernacular Hindi to criticise both Hinduism and Islam.
• Challenged rituals, the caste system, idol worship, and religious hypocrisy.
• Famous for the "Bijak" collection of his sayings and poems.
• Founded the Kabir Panth (Kabir tradition) with numerous followers.

7. Guru Nanak (1469-1539 CE): Founder of Sikhism, visionary Bhakti saint

• Born near present-day Lahore in Punjab.
• Sought a religious path, avoiding formal structures of both Islam and Hinduism.
• Preached that caste, creed, and gender are irrelevant for spiritual liberation.
• Advocated Naam (remembrance of God) and honest living.
• Founded the Sikh community based on principles of equality and social justice.

8. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534 CE): Founder of the Bengal Bhakti movement

• Born in Bengal during the night of a lunar eclipse in 1486.
• Proclaimed as an incarnation of Krishna by followers.
• Started the Sankirtan movement (congregational chanting) in Bengal and Odisha.
• Simplified Krishna devotion through chanting the Hare Krishna Maha-mantra.
• Taught Achintya Bhed Abhed philosophy (inconceivable unity in duality).

9. Tulsidas (1532-1623 CE): Greatest Hindi poet and devotee of Rama

• Born in Rajapur, Uttar Pradesh.
• Composed the epic Ramcharitmanas (The Holy Lake of the Deeds of Rama).
• Wrote in Awadhi (common language), making Ramayana accessible to all.
• Founded the Sankatmochan Temple dedicated to Hanuman in Varanasi.
• Started the Ramlila (folk theatre enactment of Ramayana) tradition.

10. Mirabai (1498-1546 CE): Woman saint, poet, and rebel mystic of Rajasthan

• Born into a Rajput royal family in Merta, Rajasthan.
• Married to Prince Bhojraj but considered herself the wife of Krishna.
• Dedicated entire life to Krishna devotion through music and poetry.
• Legends say she merged with Krishna's idol in 1547.

Other Significant North Indian Bhakti Saints (16th-18th Centuries)

1. Surdas (1478-1583 CE): Blind poet devotee of Krishna from the Mathura region.

• Composed thousands of devotional songs about Krishna's childhood and life.
• A devotional poet influenced by Vallabhacharya's Pushtimarg.

2. Ravidas/Raidas (1450-1520 CE): Cobbler saint and spiritual reformer

• Became a spiritual disciple of Ramananda.
• Preached equality and rejection of the caste system.
• His teaching influenced Sikhism and other movements.

3. Namdev (1270-1350 CE): Tailor saint poet from Maharashtra

• Advocated devotion to Vithoba (form of Vishnu).
• Started the tradition of the Varkari pilgrimage to Pandharpur.

4. Dadu Dayal (1544-1603 CE): Sant philosopher emphasising formless God

• Preached Nirguna Brahman without idols or rituals.
• Founded a tradition inspiring later saints.

Regional Founders and Organisers:

1. Alvars (6th-10th centuries): Early South Indian Vaishnavite saint-poets.

• Twelve major Alvars from various castes who sang devotional hymns to Vishnu.
• Travelled extensively singing in the Tamil language.
• Created compilations of their songs in Divya Prabandham.
• Their works inspired Ramanuja and gave shape to organised Vaishnavism.
• Made Bhakti accessible to all people regardless of caste.

2. Nayanars (6th-8th centuries): South Indian Shaivite saint-poets.

• Approximately 63 Nayanars from different castes and professions.
• The most famous works include those of Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, and Manikkavasagar.
• Compiled their devotional songs in Tevaram and Tiruvacakam.
• Established Shaivism as a popular devotional movement.
• Challenged Buddhist and Jain influences in South India.

3. Basavanna (1106-1168 CE): Founder of the Lingayat movement in Karnataka.

• Born in Karnataka during the Kalyani Chalukya period.
• Established Lingayatism or Veerashaivism as a revolutionary Bhakti movement.
• Founded the Anubhava Mantapa (hall of spiritual experience) for open discussions.
• Composed hundreds of Vachanas (short poems) in the Kannada language.
• The rejected caste system and meaningless rituals are completely.
• Promoted the concept that all people, regardless of caste or gender, could be Lingayats.
• His movement became one of the most progressive social reform initiatives.

Also read: Buddhism Notes for UPSC: Origins, Teachings & Historical Impact

The Bhakti movement brought major changes in Hindu thought, offering new ideas about God, salvation, and the bond between humans and the divine

1. Concept of God Through Different Philosophical Schools

• Advaita Vedanta: Emphasises Nirguna Brahman (God without attributes or form), ultimate non-dualism, where the individual soul is identical with universal consciousness.
• Vishista Advaita: Presents Saguna Brahman (God with divine qualities), qualified non-dualism where individual souls remain eternally distinct from but intimately connected to God.
• Dvaita Vedanta: Stresses dualism where God, souls, and matter are three eternally distinct realities with God as the supreme controller.

Different schools provided philosophical justification for other approaches to worship and devotion.

2. Nirguna Vs Saguna Brahman

Two approaches to understanding divine manifestation.

Nirguna path: Focuses on the formless, attributeless, transcendent aspect of God.

• Associated with Advaita philosophy and saints like Kabir.
• Emphasises meditation and knowledge as a path to liberation.
• Rejects idol worship and ritualistic practices.

Saguna path: Concentrates on God with divine qualities, form, and personality

• Associated with the Vishista Advaita and Dvaita philosophies.
• Emphasises devotion to a personal God with name and form.
• Includes worship through idols, prayers, and rituals.
• Seeks an eternal relationship with God, not a merger.
• Allows for emotional attachment and a personal relationship with the deity.

3. Path of Bhakti as a Superior Mode of Salvation

• Bhakti is considered superior to ritualistic practices (Karma).
• Bhakti is considered superior to intellectual knowledge alone (Gyan).
• Sincere emotional devotion is accessible to all, regardless of education or caste.

4. Concept of Surrender and Self-Abandonment

• Prapatti: Complete surrender of self to God's divine will.
• Atma-nivedana: Offering one's complete self to the deity.
• A believer gives up individual ego and personal desires.

5. Universality of God and Spiritual Path

• God is one universal principle with different names across religions.
• Spirituality is not the monopoly of any caste, religion, or gender.

The Bhakti movement did not emerge in isolation. Multiple social, political, religious, and cultural factors created favourable conditions for its rise and growth across India.

1. Decline of Brahminical power: Turkish and Muslim invasions weakened traditional Brahmin authority.

• Turkish conquests removed Brahmin control over temple wealth and resources.
• Brahminical monopoly over religious authority was weakened, opening space for new movements.

2. Interaction with Islamic mysticism: Contact with Sufi traditions influenced Bhakti development.

• Islamic Sufism emphasised personal devotion to God without intermediaries.
• Both movements shared a belief in a direct relationship between the individual and the divine.
• Blending of Hindu and Muslim spiritual ideas created syncretic traditions.

3. Limitations of orthodox Brahminical practices: Rigid rituals and an exclusionary system.

• Brahminical religion had become formalistic with complex rituals and ceremonies.
• Common people felt alienated from overly ritualistic and priestly-dependent religion.

4. Influence of Vedantic philosophy: Intellectual foundation for Bhakti.

• Advaita, Vishista Advaita, and Dvaita philosophies provided an intellectual basis.
• Philosophical schools created a framework for understanding God in different ways.

5. Decline of Buddhism and Jainism: A Vacuum created space for new movements.

• Buddhism had declined significantly in India by the medieval period.
• Jainism remained restricted to limited communities and regions.

6. Oppression of Lower Castes: Frustration with caste-based discrimination.

• The rigid caste system excluded lower castes from religious leadership and participation.
• Ritual purity concepts created severe social discrimination.

7. Appeal to Women and Marginalised: Inclusive spiritual opportunities.

• Bhakti welcomed women as spiritual leaders and poets.
• Marginalised communities found acceptance and dignity in Bhakti communities.

The Bhakti movement transformed Indian society by breaking down caste barriers, empowering women, and making spirituality accessible to all people.

• Challenge to the Caste System: Saints rejected caste discrimination and welcomed all castes equally into spiritual communities.
• Empowerment of Women: Women became spiritual leaders, teachers, and poets with public authority and voice.
• Inclusion of Lower Castes: Marginalised people like weavers, cobblers, and slaves became respected spiritual guides.
• Rejection of Brahminical Rituals: Reduced priestly monopoly by allowing direct worship without intermediaries
• Promotion of Equality: Preached that all humans were equal in God's eyes, regardless of birth or status.

The Bhakti movement was one of the most important movements in Indian history. It made religion simple, accessible, and available to everyone. It challenged the caste system, respected women, and created new languages and art forms. This movement changed how Indians thought about God, society, and spirituality. It influenced the creation of Sikhism and continues to inspire modern India's values of equality and religious freedom.

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