What is Indus Valley Civilization? The History, Location, and Artifacts

Did you know that one of the world's oldest urban civilizations thrived over 4,500 years ago in the Indian subcontinent? The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, was a highly advanced and sophisticated society that flourished around 3300–1300 BCE. 

For UPSC CSE aspirants, understanding what is Indus Valley Civilization is crucial, as it forms a significant part of the Art and Culture and Ancient History syllabus for both Prelims and Mains. UPSC frequently tests candidates on its geographical extent, town planning, socioeconomic structure, artifacts, and decline theories. 

In this blog, we will explore the history, location, and artifacts of the Indus Valley Civilization, providing a well-rounded understanding essential for UPSC preparation.

• The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) stands as one of the greatest early civilizations in human history, alongside Mesopotamia and Egypt.  
• It flourished around 3300–1300 BCE in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, covering parts of present-day India and Pakistan. 
• It was known for its well-planned cities, advanced drainage systems, standardized weights and measures, and thriving trade networks. 
• Major sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, and Lothal. 
• The civilization mysteriously declined, but its contributions to urban planning, craftsmanship, and trade remain significant in history. 

While its peak urban phase spanned from 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE, its roots can be traced back even earlier. The discovery of this civilization revolutionized our understanding of South Asian history, revealing an advanced society with remarkable achievements in urban planning, trade, and craftsmanship.

Historical Background

1. Precursor Settlements (7000 BCE - 3300 BCE)

• Early farming communities like Mehrgarh (modern-day Pakistan) developed around 7000 BCE.
• These settlements show evidence of agriculture, domestication of animals, and early pottery, marking the transition from a nomadic to a settled lifestyle.

2. Early Harappan Phase (3300 BCE - 2600 BCE)

• Small village-based settlements emerged along the Indus River and its tributaries.
• Trade networks expanded, and the foundation for urbanization was laid.
• Distinctive pottery, early forms of writing, and planned settlements began to appear.

3. Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE - 1900 BCE)

• The golden age of the civilization, with large, well-planned cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, and Lothal.
• Advanced drainage systems, standardized weights and measures, and long-distance trade with Mesopotamia flourished.
• Distinctive seals, sculptures, and town planning emerged as hallmarks of the civilization.

4. Discovery in the Modern Era (1921 - Present)

• In 1921, archaeologist Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa, marking the first official discovery of the civilization.
• In 1922, R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjo-daro, further confirming an extensive and advanced civilization.
• Since then, over 1,000 sites have been excavated, providing insights into its culture, economy, and eventual decline.

Must read: Startling Discovery: Harappan Civilization's age was unveiled at 7000-8000 years!

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was one of the largest ancient civilizations, covering vast regions across modern-day India, Pakistan, and parts of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. 

The civilization primarily flourished along the Indus River and its tributaries, with major settlements in:

• Pakistan: Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan
• India: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh

The vast geographical spread of IVC sites indicates a well-connected and expansive civilization:

Recent excavations have uncovered Harappan influence beyond the traditional Indus region, with sites found in:

• Afghanistan: Shortugai, a key outpost for trade with Central Asia.
• Turkmenistan: Gonur Tepe, showing signs of Harappan trade interactions.

Ask SuperKalam any queries regarding any subtopic and it will give you instant notes and MCQ questions to practice for the UPSC Prelims.

By memorizing the table below, you can confidently tackle IVC-related questions in UPSC Prelims. 

Want to explore the fascinating history of the Indus Valley Civilization in detail? Watch this insightful lecture now! Stone Age to Indus Valley Civilisation | GS Foundation Initiative for UPSC

The Indus Valley Civilization was rich in artistic and cultural expressions, as seen through its intricately crafted artifacts. These objects provide deep insights into the daily life, trade, religious beliefs, and artistic skills of the Harappans. 

Terracotta Sculptures

• Material: Baked clay
• Significance: Represented everyday life, religious beliefs, and artistic expression.
• Examples: Animal figurines, mother goddess statues, and toy carts.

Pottery

• Material: Painted terracotta
• Significance: Used for storage, cooking, and rituals.
• Features: Geometric designs, depictions of animals and plants.
• Example: Red and black pottery with painted motifs.

Seals (Pashupati Seal & Unicorn Seal)

• Material: Steatite (soft stone), terracotta
• Significance: Possibly used for trade, identity markers, and religious symbolism.
• Pashupati Seal: Shows a three-faced figure, believed to be an early form of Lord Shiva.

• Unicorn Seal: Features a single-horned animal, possibly mythical, commonly found in excavations.

The Dancing Girl (Bronze Statue)

• Material: Bronze, made using the lost-wax casting technique.
• Significance: Indicates the Harappan expertise in metalwork and possibly an early form of dance or entertainment.
• Features: Slender body, confident posture, and detailed ornaments.

The Priest-King Figurine

• Material: Steatite
• Significance: Possibly represents an elite or a religious figure.
• Features: Half-closed eyes, elaborate robe with trefoil pattern, short beard and headband

Jewelry & Beadwork

• Material: Gold, silver, semi-precious stones (lapis lazuli, carnelian, agate).
• Significance: Showcases Harappan trade connections and craftsmanship.
• Findings: Intricate necklaces, bangles, earrings, and head ornaments.

Indus Script & Inscriptions

• Material: Inscribed on seals, pottery, and copper plates.
• Still undeciphered, making it one of history’s greatest linguistic mysteries.
• Contains pictographic symbols, possibly representing a language or trade notations.

📝 Tip: Memorizing key artifacts along with their locations and significance helps in both Prelims and Mains answer writing. 

Share your handwritten Mains answers with SuperKalam, receive detailed feedback, and model answers in seconds. Discuss your answers LIVE with expert mentors – all for FREE!

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was remarkable for its urban planning, technological innovations, and extensive trade networks. Let’s see how!

Standardized Weights and Measures

One of the most striking features of the Harappan civilization was the use of a uniform system of weights and measures, which was crucial for trade, taxation, and commerce.

• Material Used: Stone cubes, primarily made of chert and limestone.
• Standardization:
  • Weights followed a binary system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.).
  • Smaller weights followed a decimal system (0.05g to 500g).
• Significance: 
  • Ensured fair transactions across different cities. 
  • Indicated centralized economic planning.
  • Enabled efficient trade and taxation. 

Example: Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa have revealed perfectly cut stone weights, showcasing precision and uniformity.

Advanced Metallurgy: Mastery Over Metalworking

The Harappans excelled in metallurgy, utilizing copper, bronze, tin, and lead to create tools, weapons, and ornaments.

• Copper & Bronze Tools: Used for making axes, chisels, fish hooks, and arrowheads.

• Tin & Lead: Used to harden metals and create stronger alloys.
• Gold & Silver: Extensively used for jewelry, seals, and decorative items.

• Lost-Wax Casting Technique: A sophisticated method used to create bronze statues, such as the famous Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro.

Example: Surkotada and Lothal revealed copper tools, indicating advanced metalworking techniques.

Extensive Trade Networks: Local and Global Reach

The Harappans engaged in local, regional, and international trade, connecting with various civilizations across land and sea routes.

Local and Regional Trade

• Exchange of agricultural produce, textiles, and pottery between Harappan cities.
• Trade with neighboring regions like Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Deccan for raw materials.

Long-Distance Trade (Maritime & Land-Based)

The Indus Valley Civilization had well-established trade links with Mesopotamia (Sumerians), Persia, and Central Asia, facilitated by both land routes and maritime networks.

Evidence of Maritime Trade

• Lothal (Gujarat): Featured a well-planned dockyard, indicating seafaring trade with Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula.
• Seals with Indus script were found in Mesopotamian cities like Ur and Sumer, proving direct contact.
• Mesopotamian records refer to a land called "Meluhha", which historians believe refers to the Indus region.

Example: Lothal’s dockyard is considered one of the world's oldest ports, showcasing Harappan expertise in maritime trade and naval architecture.

📝 Tip: Remember key Harappan trade routes and link them with modern trade practices in India to make your Mains answers more dynamic! 

Watch this video to effortlessly prepare for Ancient History topics Complete Strategy for ANCIENT HISTORY for UPSC 2025/26| SuperKalam

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) had a well-organized society with advanced urban planning, yet it lacked clear evidence of a centralized monarchy or ruling elite. The governance system appears to have been decentralized, possibly based on a city-state model. Let’s understand in detail!

City-State Administration: Decentralized Governance

Unlike Mesopotamia and Egypt, where kings ruled, the Indus Valley Civilization shows no evidence of a singular ruler, dynasty, or empire. Instead, governance may have been handled by local administrators or a council of elders in each city.

• Well-Planned Cities: Grid-based streets, advanced drainage systems, and uniform building structures indicate strong urban governance.
• Standardized Brick Sizes: Found across all major sites, suggesting a common set of regulations.
• Seals and Script: The presence of seals with symbols might indicate administrative control and trade regulation.
• Granaries and Public Storage: Large granaries in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro suggest centralized food distribution.

Example: The presence of a Great Bath in Mohenjo-Daro indicates some level of public management for water use and sanitation.

Social Stratification: Divisions Based on Occupation and Status

The artifacts and city layouts provide insights into the social hierarchy within Harappan society.

• Elite Class: Larger, well-built houses with private wells suggest a privileged upper class.
• Commoners: Smaller, uniform houses indicate a working-class population.
• Laborers & Craftsmen: Lived in lower sections of the city, possibly near workshops.
• Occupational Diversity: Society included merchants, artisans, laborers, and farmers.
• Burial Practices: Variations in grave goods suggest differences in wealth and status.
• Jewelry and Ornaments: Elaborate gold and stone jewelry indicate a wealthy elite class.

Example: Dholavira’s water reservoirs and citadel suggest differentiation in access to resources, reinforcing social stratification.

📝 Tip: Compare IVC governance with Mesopotamian and Egyptian models to enrich your Mains answers! 

Check out our blog: UPSC Prelims 2024-25: Modern History Preparation Guide

The Indus Valley Civilization had a rich cultural and religious landscape, though much of it remains speculative due to the lack of written records.

Absence of Palaces and Temples: A Unique Feature

A significant distinction between the Indus Valley Civilization and its contemporaries (like Mesopotamia and Egypt) is the lack of grand palaces or large temples.

• No Massive Monuments: Unlike pyramids in Egypt or ziggurats in Mesopotamia, the IVC does not display monumental architecture for rulers.
• Possible Theocratic Rule? Some historians suggest a priestly class might have played a role in governance, but the absence of large temples challenges this theory.
• Secular Urban Planning: The focus on drainage, granaries, and trade centers rather than religious buildings suggests a more practical administration.

Example: The fire altars at Kalibangan suggest religious practices, but they were relatively modest compared to other ancient civilizations.

Worship of the Mother Goddess and Nature Deities

Artifacts suggest that the people of the Indus Valley revered female figurines, leading many scholars to believe in a Mother Goddess cult.

• Numerous terracotta figurines depict a female deity with elaborate ornaments, possibly representing fertility and motherhood.
• The significance of animal worship is evident from seals depicting bulls, elephants, and other animals.
• Trees and animals were likely considered sacred, with some scholars linking these depictions to early Hindu traditions.

Example: The Pashupati Seal found at Mohenjo-Daro, depicting a figure seated in a yogic posture surrounded by animals, is often associated with proto-Shiva worship.

Religious Symbols on Seals and Terracotta Figurines

The Indus seals provide valuable insights into the spiritual and ritualistic beliefs of the civilization.

• The unicorn, bull, and tiger frequently appear on seals, possibly representing tribal totems or deities.
• Some seals depict ritualistic scenes, indicating practices related to fertility, worship, or supernatural beliefs.
• The undeciphered Indus script might contain religious hymns, prayers, or records of rituals.

Example: The "Priest-King" statue from Mohenjo-Daro has been interpreted by some as a representation of a spiritual or administrative leader.

Ritual Practices and Burial Traditions

The burial practices of the Harappans provide clues about their beliefs in the afterlife.

• Graves contain pottery, jewelry, and personal items, suggesting a belief in life after death.
• Some burial sites show evidence of secondary burials, possibly indicating ancestor worship.
• The practice of urn burials in some regions suggests regional variations in funeral customs.

Example: The Rakhigarhi burial site revealed DNA evidence linking the Harappans to later South Asian populations.

📝 Tip: Compare IVC religious practices with later Vedic and Hindu traditions to enrich your Mains answers! 

Check out our playlist of unlimited tests for Mains preparation: Complete GS Syllabus Revision with LIVE Unlimited Tests for UPSC 2024-25 Power Revision

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), once a thriving and sophisticated urban culture, began its decline around 1900 BCE and was completely abandoned by 1400 BCE. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization was not due to a single catastrophic event but rather a combination of environmental, economic, and climatic factors.

Gradual Decline and Abandonment

• By 1900 BCE, many major cities like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Kalibangan started showing signs of urban decay.
• By 1400 BCE, most settlements were either abandoned or reduced to rural villages.
• Unlike sudden collapses seen in other civilizations, the decline of the IVC appears to have been gradual and multi-causal.

Key Theories Explaining the Decline

1. Climate Change and Environmental Factors

• Studies indicate a gradual weakening of the monsoon, leading to drought-like conditions.
• With declining rainfall, agricultural productivity suffered, causing food shortages.
• Desertification of the Ghaggar-Hakra region may have forced people to migrate eastward toward the Ganges plains.

Example: Research on lake sediments in Rajasthan suggests a major shift in climate around 2000 BCE, impacting agriculture and water availability.

2. Shifts in River Courses and Water Scarcity

• The Sarasvati River, believed to have been a major lifeline for the civilization, dried up or changed course around 1900 BCE.
• The Indus River also shifted, leading to flooding in some areas and water shortages in others.
• The loss of navigable rivers might have disrupted agriculture and trade, forcing migration.

Example: The once-thriving site of Kalibangan shows evidence of abandoned settlements due to water scarcity.

3. Decline of Trade and Economic Collapse

• The Indus Civilization had strong trade links with Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf.
• Around 1900 BCE, Mesopotamia faced its own economic troubles, leading to a decline in trade.
• The reduction in external commerce may have weakened the economy, making cities unsustainable.

Example: The presence of Dilmun seals (Bahrain) in Indus sites indicates long-distance trade, which eventually declined.

4. The Discredited Aryan Invasion Theory

Earlier theories suggested that the Aryans, Indo-European migrants, invaded and destroyed the Indus cities around 1500 BCE. However, this theory has been largely discredited due to:

• No archaeological evidence of large-scale warfare or destruction.
• The gradual nature of the decline, rather than a sudden collapse.
• New genetic and linguistic research indicates continuity between Harappan populations and later Vedic people.

Example: Excavations show no mass graves or widespread violent destruction, contradicting the invasion theory.

The Aftermath and Legacy

• Many Harappan people migrated eastward toward the Gangetic plains, influencing later cultures.
• Elements of Harappan culture, such as brick-making, drainage systems, and religious symbols, continued in later Indian traditions.
• The Indus script remains undeciphered, but its cultural and technological contributions still influence Indian civilization today.

While the civilization eventually disappeared, its cultural legacy lived on, influencing later Vedic and Indian societies.

Also check our lecture: Complete Indus Valley Civilisation in 1 Mind-Map | 10 Minute Series | UPSC CSE

"A people without the knowledge of their past history, origin, and culture is like a tree without roots." — Marcus Garvey.

The Indus Valley Civilization is a remarkable testament to ancient urban planning, advanced trade networks, and artistic brilliance. Despite its decline, it laid the foundation for many cultural and technological aspects of later Indian civilizations. Ongoing research, particularly in deciphering the Indus script, continues to shed light on its rich history. 

Understanding the rise and fall of this great civilization helps us appreciate our past and offers valuable lessons on sustainability and resilience in human societies.

Enhance Your Preparation with SuperKalam!

Meet SuperKalam! Your Super Mentor provides a comprehensive learning ecosystem, you can benefit from focused and disciplined preparation strategies. 

Start Now—it's FREE and take advantage of personalized guidance to crack the UPSC with confidence and clarity.

Join India’s First Interactive Prelims Test Series for 2025 with SuperKalam to take the crucial first step towards achieving your UPSC aspirations. 

Explore SuperKalam's Resources and set yourself on the path to success!